Titoki (Alectryon excelsus subsp. excelsus, New Zealand ash, New Zealand oak) is one of our most attractive lowland trees especially when laden with its enchanting fruit, a shiny black seed wrapped in a fleshy red aril that gradually emerges from a velvety pod. The trees bear male and female/bisexual flowers on separate trees, fruit takes many months to mature and fruiting time is far from regular! I’ve collected fruit in January, February, May and October and some years found no fruit at all.

Titoki is common from Northland to Banks Peninsula in lowland and coastal areas on quite fertile, well-drained soil such as river flats. The two New Zealand endemics in this genus (the other being Alectryon excelsus subsp. grandis found only on the Three Kings Islands) are the southernmost with the other 30 odd species inhabiting tropical regions. They belong to the Sapindaceae family aka soapberry, a group that includes well known plants such as maple, horse chestnut and lychee and so named for its surfactant properties. Compounds found in many plant parts lower the surface tension between two liquids or a liquid and a solid so are used in foaming agents, emulsifiers and detergents. Maori bruised and steamed the seeds to release the oils which were used for many ailments from skin sores to rheumatism, sprains, ear and eye problems and as a carrier for scented oils like lemonwood.

Titoki is easy to propagate from seed but be sure to sow them immediately! Its viability drops rapidly after storage of even a few months. Though a hardy tree when established and tolerant of drought and frost, make sure it doesn’t dry out when young and protect from hard frosts. Powdery mildew can be a problem in humid, still conditions so ensure good airflow, see Pests and Diseases page for remedies.

There's no missing kowhai (genus Sophora) when its in flower and no surprise that it's such a popular garden specimen. Kowhai are deciduous and flower when the trees are still virtually leafless at the very dawn of spring making them all the more spectacular. The flowering of kowhai for Maori is traditionally a sign that its a good time to collect kina and scallops. The leaves are loved by kereru (native wood pigeon) as well as the native kowhai caterpillar that in large enough numbers can strip a whole tree ! For more info on good bird food trees visit the Kereru Discovery Project.

Our Wellington locals in this genus are Sophora microphylla (weeping kowhai, small-leaved kowhai), a tree than can get up to 25mtrs tall and happy in a wide range of habitats, and Sophora molloyii (Cook Strait Kowhai, Molloy's Kowhai) a smaller dense tree up to about 3mtrs tall that now has a restricted range and is at risk in the wild. It grows in amazingly inhospitable environments clinging to scree slopes around the south coast of the North Island and on Stephens, Rangitoto, Chetwode, Titi, Arapawa, and Kapiti Islands.

Kowhai seed is around all year round either on the ground under the tree or still clinging on from last season even when the new pods are forming. The fresh seed will always germinate faster and in fact will germinate even when very green and not even hardened up so seed age accounts for a significant difference in germination time. This is true for most seed to a certain extent.

below: the clear lavender flowers of poroporo (Solanum laciniatum) and rangiora (Brachyglottis repanda) much loved by bees, flies and butterflies

 Photo by Jon Sullivan                                                                      Photo by Leon Perrie

above left: Puawananga (Clematis paniculata), the herald of spring and a true joy to see the glowing white clusters appearing in the trees after a long winter. If you're looking for a dramatic spring flowerer in your garden, give this a go, as long as its roots are cool and it can climb into the sun it'll be happy.
above right: far from the showy large blooms and graceful drape of C. paniculata, Clematis afoliata (leafless clematis) resembles a tangled ball of wire. Its only found in one spot in Wellington these days and is one that we are keen to increase in numbers.

Most people have no trouble naming the iconic nikau palm (Rhopalostylis sapida) famed for being the southernmost palm in the world. It's our only palm and shares the Arecaceae family with numerous well known and economically important plants like coconut, date and oil palms. Nikau is uncommon in central Wellington now but was once more plentiful in a narrow ecological zone known as the "nikau belt", semi-coastal forest spreading up the western suburbs northwards from about Otari Wiltons Bush where just a few remain. Everything about this species is slow. It can take up to 20 years to start forming a trunk and up to 30 years before it flowers and sets fruit which no doubt contributed to its decline along with the usual suspects, habitat loss and fruit predators.

The fruit, dispersed by kereru, takes about a year to mature and the timing is quite variable, I've collected it May, August and October. Nikau do not tolerate frost, they like moist shade especially in their early years (about the first 15) and shelter from wind. They develop a tap root that makes them tricky to transplant and should be raised in a tall pot or bag and transplanted when young for best results.

Several parts of this tree were eaten; the circular butts of the leaves once stripped back to the soft white inner part (koata), and the root, which is apparently sweet tasting and was pickled in vinegar by early settlers. The succulent heart leaves were a favoured food too but obtaining them kills the tree so it wasn't eaten often. The larger leaves however were used extensively for roofing and weaving.

Pate (seven finger, Schefflera digitata) is a common small tree found throughout New Zealand which is sometimes mistaken for five finger (Pseudopanax arboreus) as it shares some family resemblances. The obvious differences are its thinner leaves with finer sharper serrations and usually seven leaflets. The leaves of pate contain falcarindiol, an antifungal agent that proved effective for the treatment of ringworm and other fungal skin complaints.

The beautiful large spreading panicle of dark purple berries are very attractive to birds, and the juice so dark, it was used as an ink. The seeds (pictured below the fruits in the inset) are small, soft and delicate so don't grind away at these too much when washing the fruit off. Germination has an initial flush but seeds will continue to germinate over a long period of time. Pate likes moist, shady, sheltered spots so bear this in mind when cultivating as it can have high loss rates in the early stages after pricking out, particularly if pricked out in cold weather which it does not like! Once it gets going it's an extremely fast grower but will require lots of water through the warmer months.

Tarata (lemonwood, Pittosporum eugenioides) is a widespread forest margin tree in lowland and hill country. It's the largest of our Pittosporum species growing up to 12 mtrs and its yellow-green leaves with wavy margins and very pale midribs distinguish it from the others. Lemonwood shares a similar  distribution to kohuhu (P. tenuifolium), scarce or absent from Westland forests and Stewart Island but common everywhere else below about 760 m.

The lemon-scented resinous gum was used as a glue when lashing fishing lines and to perfume chewing gums and oils such as kōhia (Passiflora tetrandra) mentioned in April post. 

The fruit is very slow to ripen, the capsules turning from fleshy green to dry black but they don't split right open like other species in the genus.  Once ripe the resin coated seeds are dispersed by sticking to birds who also love to eat them! In the publications I've read Pittosporum are said to be erratic and slow to germinate but I've found tarata and kohuhu to be fairly quick and even germinators after a couple of months in moist peat in the fridge (cool moist stratification, CMS).

See March post for more on Pittosporum and Pittosporaceae.

The number of Astelia species increased after a recent revision placed species previously known as Collospermum back in their rightful place with Astelia. The production of progeny from intergeneric crosses between Astelia and Collospermum is just one of a number of clues suggesting a close relationship between the two and leading to their earlier placement in the same genus.

Astelia hastata (kahakaha, tank lily, previously Collospermum hastatum), is a large conspicuous epiphyte common in Wellington bush areas. The others you're likely to see in our area are Astelia solandri (perching lily, kaiwharawhara) another epiphytic and forest floor species with narrower, drooping leaves, and Astelia fragrans (bush flax , bush lily, kakaha, January post), a large flax-like form with yellowish green leaves and bright orange fruit that are opaque rather than transparent as in A. solandri and A. hastata. The fruits contain several small, shiny, black seeds.

The main thing to bear in mind with Astelia species is they don't like humidity so make sure they have lots of air flow and avoid overhead watering. Even large established Astelia will rot if watered overhead too often, especially when its warm.

Lophomyrtus bullata (ramarama, bubble leaf) is a beautiful small tree with bubbly, red-mottled leaves and fruit that turn almost black when ripe and clearly resemble other members of the Myrtaceae family like feijoa and guava. The genus, consisting of two species (the other L. obcordata), is endemic to New Zealand. Where the two overlap they produce a range of hybrids known as Lophomyrtus x ralphii which has given rise to most of the cultivars commonly seen in garden centres.

Ramarama contains bullatenone which has been found to have antiseptic and anti fungal properties. The bark also contains ellagic acid (found in many red fruits and berries) which Maori used traditionally to reduce bruising and has since been shown to slow the proliferation of cancer cells.

Ramarama is usually found in coastal and lowland forest and shrubland areas in the North Island and top of the South in Nelson/Marlborough. It's not very common in central Wellington but is easy to propagate if you can get the fruit (which has numerous seeds in each) and is extremely hardy.

Pukatea (Laurelia novae-zelandiae), growing up to 35 meters tall, is our largest hardwood tree. Though formerly included in the same family as Hedycarya (pigeonwood), pukatea is now the only member of its family in New Zealand and stems from an ancient lineage. Studies suggest an initial diversification of the family (Atherospermataceae), 100 - 140 million yeas ago in western Gondwana, quickly moving east to where pollen records of the family are found from Antarctic forests dating back to about 88 mya. New Guinea, New Caledonia, Australia, Chile and Antarctica were all still joined in the remaining eastern block of the Gondwanan land mass at this time and members of the family are still found in all  those countries. One could assume that this suggests the genera and species evolved into the distinct groups we see today as they travelled with the separating land in a process called vicariant evolution. Laurelia showed up in New Zealand's pollen record for the first time between 39 and 24 mya during the Oligocene (as did Coprosma, Metrosideros and Fuchsia). Has it been here changing and evolving since its origins in Gondwana, or did it disperse here later from across the seas ? To join this argument embroils you in over 150 years of research and speculation on the origins of our unique biota and one that is not set to end any time soon .......

Wind dispersed seeds are uncommon among our large emergent tree species. Pukatea form clusters of pods shaped like small, elongated pears that split open to release seeds cloaked in silky hairs. This results in a brief collection period when the ground beneath the tree is thick with them but they quickly descend into the damp swampy ground. Its chosen habitat in soggy, unstable soils has led to the formation of plank buttresses at the base of the trunk, a useful tool for spotting them in mixed forest. Waterlogged soils are oxygen poor but roots need to respire so Laurelia has an extensive root system some of which loop up above the soil and develop lenticels (pores) that allow air into the inner tissues. These specialised roots are called pneumatophores.

The bark of this tree contains pukateine, an alkaloid that acts to reduce nerve pain and was widely used for tooth ache. The bark decoction was also used for skin ailments and ulcers and is still available from natural medicine outlets today for its pain relieving properties.

Aptly named bastard grass (hook sedge, kamu, matau-a-maui (fish hook of Maui), Carex uncinata previously Uncinia) this sedge needs very little excuse to grab on taking advantage of even the downiest of human hairs! Though I love it I frequently curse this ability when working in the garden! This species is the commonest of the hook sedges found throughout the country and in Hawaii in a wide range of habitats.

Carex uncinata is a bit uncooperative in the nursery setting, some growing into wonderful healthy looking plants and others remaining shabby with browning off leaves and never really getting going. I haven't grown it for long enough to determine what causes this variability but as for most plants, attempting to replicate its natural habitat should give the best results. In this case, an open but mostly shaded site with moderate soil moisture. 

Carex species vary in how the male and female flowers are arranged on a spike (single seed head on a stem) or an inflorescence (multiple seed heads on a stem). Some have spikes with both male and female flowers as in this species (the males positioned above the females), or inflorescences with male spikes and females spikes in different arrangements.

Slim pickings on the flowering front but the flowers of the enchanting kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile, New Zealand mahogany), sprouting directly from the trunks, are starting to open just as this years fruit is beginning to ripen.

The two distinct flower types of Coprosma grandifolia (kanono). Left, the pistils of the female plant and right, the large conspicuous anthers of male.

Carex geminata (cutty grass, rautahi) (left) and Carex lessoniana (cutty grass, rautahi) (right) must be treated together due to their similarity in appearance and freshwater wetland habitat. With natural variability thrown in they can be difficult to tell apart but C. geminata has much longer peduncles (stalks that the seed heads are attached to), with longer more slender seed heads. C. lessoniana I often think looks a bit scruffier, with more compact seed heads and short peduncles so the upper seed heads particularly, are not as drooping as C. geminata.

I've found germination of both of these to be a bit sparse and variable. I suspect this is because they take a long time to ripen so it can be tempting to collect them before they're quite ready. Best results are achieved by waiting till they are very easily falling off the seed head before collecting and check the seed is completely brown. They mature quite late in the season so collections can be made up until May and June with March being about the earliest.

Gahnia pauciflora (cutting sedge) is yet another member of the Cyperaceae family that includes Carex. It grows in low fertility soils in forest up to 800 mtrs, often in clearings and on track edges. Gahnia is native to China, South East Asia, Australia, New Zealand and many Pacific islands and the six species found here are all endemic. G. setifolia also grows in the Wellington area but is larger with many more flower stalks per plant and the seeds are significantly smaller.

Given their disappearance from much of lowland Wellington and other areas of the country, it’s a shame Gahnia species are not more widely planted. Not only for the beauty of their bold reddish seed heads with bright coloured shiny seeds, but also considering their important association with the now rare Dodonidia helmsii (Forest ringlet) our only forest dwelling butterfly that relies on plants like Gahnia and Chionochloa for food. Sadly they are rather uncooperative in cultivation, not so much due to poor germination, but to extreme intolerance of root disturbance so don’t tease out the roots as you might usually when transplanting.

Gahnia are easy to spot due to the curious mechanism they employ for displaying their bright seeds, known as nuts. The filaments of the anthers remain attached to the base of the nut as it ripens and gradually lengthen and twist together with filaments from other flowers. Once the seed is released from its scale it dangles from the entwined filaments. The seeds have a long ripening period so should be left as long as possible before collection and some suggest, dried further (up to 6 months) before sowing.

This unassuming small tree Coprosma foetidissima (hupiro, stinkwood, shit shrub), has given all the others a bad name. The genus Coprosma meaning 'dung' from the Greek 'kopros' and 'osme' for 'smell' arose from this species despite it being the only one that smells this foul. C. foetidissima grows on the inland hills around Wellington, more common in re-establishing scrub cover in open exposed areas. It has small soft pale green leaves and is easily over looked when part of a low canopy but hard to miss if there is breeze brushing the leaves and releasing its 'vile' odour.

Acaena pallida (sand piripiri, sand bidibid) will readily collect itself on your socks almost all year round as you ramble  through the sand dunes where it is common all around the coast from the southern North Island southwards. Sand piripiri provides an excellent food source for lizards and as a sand binder is useful for mitigating coastal erosion. Though it's a dune dweller it needs that moisture from lower down so don't be tempted to keep it as dry as the upper sand layer.

There are 100 odd species in this genus concentrated in Australia, South America and New Zealand with about 20 species occurring here. They're a successful group with several New Zealand species making it to invasive plant lists in North America, not surprising considering many have barbed seeds that are spread widely as they easily attach to feathers and fur.

Though not typically raised from seed the Veronicas (or Hebes depending on your level of attachment to their former name) really deserve a mention as they are New Zealand’s largest genus of flowering plants. There are almost 90 species (not to mention cultivars!!) displaying amazing ecological and morphological diversity and they’re important food for bees and butterflies. Two that are common around Wellington and ideal for restoration are koromiko (Veronica stricta var. stricta and var. macroura) and V. parviflora (formerly V. arborea), both reaching small tree status, 5 - 7.5mtrs.

Like the Asteraceae family (Olearia, Brachyglottis, Ozothamnus, Raoulia), they self-seed readily but are extremely variable when attempting to raise a crop from seed so by far the easiest option is cuttings. Cuttings are clones of the parent plant so when genetic diversity is important make sure to collect from as many plants as possible. See the Propagation page for notes on taking cuttings. Veronicas can be susceptible to fungal and mould issues in humid conditions so maximum air flow is essential.

Olearia solandri (Coastal tree daisy) occupies a similar niche to Ozothamnus leptophylla (March post) but is not as abundant. It is easily identified by its square yellow stems that fade a bit as they get older, and like many Olearia species its scent is divine. It's in the daisy family which means the seed viability can be quite low so sow in a good thick layer to get decent numbers and you'll have them popping up over quite a long time.

Olearia is a genus of about 130 species found mainly in Australia, New Guinea and New Zealand. There are 40 odd species here and almost half of them are trees growing 5 - 8 meters tall though some, like Olearia traversiorum from the Chatham Islands, can reach 18 meters ! This makes them unique within their genus and even their family, Asteraceae, which is one of the largest in the world but mostly comprised of small herbaceous plants. More than half of our Olearia species are declining or endangered and many are uncommon. The only local natives common in Wellington are O. paniculata and O. solandri.

Perhaps the commonest Coprosma species Karamu (Croprosma robusta, glossy karamu), grows throughout the country in shrub lands from the coast to lower montane areas and in openings within established bush. Its 'weedy' nature (readily recruits, fast to grow, tolerant of a range of habitats) means it is widely used in restoration. Part of its recruitment success can be attributed to its astounding ability to set fruit from almost every flower. Though this is usually a result of pollination (gametes from male and female flowers forming an embyo), and rarely results in every flower being fertilised, some species including this one, can set fruit without pollination in a process called apomixis. The resulting fruit is a clone of the female parent, but once you factor in its dioecious breeding system (separate male and female plants) it still maintains genetic variation in its male pollinated offspring so avoids the inbreeding depression usually associated with cloned offspring or self pollination. 

Coprosma are related to coffee plants (genus Coffea) and during the world wars C. robusta seeds were roasted and used as a coffee substitute. In fact William Colenso (the first British botanist to describe many New Zealand plants) named this species Coprosma coffaeoides due to the similarities.

Cyperus ustulatus (toetoe upoko-tangata, Coastal cutty grass, Giant umbrella sedge) is a large (over 1m tall) impressive sedge, happy in any moist situation though it can tolerate drying out from time to time too. We only have a couple of native Cyperus species making them hugely outnumbered by exotics. The seed heads of Cyperus are prone to infection by the endemic smut fungus, Bauerago which interferes with seed formation. The fruiting bodies appear as a yellow pollen-like powder obvious at the time of collection. Smut fungi also infect a number of other sedges and are quite host specific. Carex lessoniana is commonly infected by one that doesn't affect C. geminata so if you see them with a coating that looks like black mold it could actually be a good indicator of the species.

The large leaves of this plant were often used for weaving mats and baskets once the sharp serrated edges were removed. Along with the two Carex species mentioned earlier, Cyperus makes an excellent large, fast growing filler. These three will compete well with the growth of exotic grasses in your wet site restoration areas.  

Kunzea ericoides was long considered a highly variable species with distinct races and varieties, or, one in need of closer attention to recognise this variability as distinct species.  After many years of compiling the puzzle pieces, a major revision of the genus in 2014 did just that. We now have ten endemic species, seven of which are newly described. Kunzea robusta (kanuka, white tea tree) our most common and widespread species is one of those. The name we used to use for this species, Kunzea ericoides is a species confined to the northern South Island.

Kunzea is a genus of almost entirely Australian species and belongs to the Myrtaceae family. In New Zealand this family includes rata, pohutakawa, manuka, kanuka and Lophomyrtus (ramarama) among others. The most topical issue for this family at present is Mrytle rust, a serious fungal disease that has recently arrived here from Australia. It severely attacks and even kills the plant and in Australia, has now become problematic for over 200 different species. Check out MPI website for more information.

Like manuka, kanuka is also a pioneer species colonising open ground in more fertile and well drained sites than manuka. Though it grows fast and large (up to 20 meters or more) the seedlings won't establish in the shade of maturing stands so eventually they are replaced by more shade tolerant forest species.  

The medicinal properties of kanuka and manuka are also similar, both species are called tea trees and almost every part of these plants, and the honeys derived from them, are imbued with multiple health benefits. See manuka in November post for notes on telling these two apart.

Flowering

Flowers are few and far between right now but Olearia paniculata (Akiraho, golden akeake) (below) is just finishing at the end of April and there are still a few flushes of Metrosideros fulgens (rata) (bottom) dotted around.

Cabbage trees, (ti kouka, Cordyline australis)  put on a truly incredible flowering display drawing bees, moths and other insects from miles around. March is the start of their fruit maturation season which continues till about June. The fruit  really needs to be white and spongy before collecting for them to be viable.

Cordyline is a genus of about 20 or so species native to the western Pacific and shares the Asparagaceae family with a diverse range of plants including our native renga lily (Arthropodium), but also exotics such as pineapple lilies (Eucomis), grape hyacinths (Muscari) and the problematic climbing asparagus fern (Asparagus scandens). The other species you'll occasionally see around Wellington is Cordyline banksii and up into mountains, Cordyline indivisa is a sight to behold!  

The name 'cabbage tree' comes from the use of the young central leaves as a cabbage substitute by early settlers and 'Cordyline' derives from the Greek word for club, referring to the enlarged underground stems (rhizomes). These were an important food source for Maori especially down South where kumara don't grow so well. The huge tap root / trunk bases were harvested just before flowering when the sugar content was highest and steamed in large umu (earth ovens) providing a sugary pulp. These earth ovens can still be seen in historic sites around Palliser area.

Earlier names for various forms of this species such as Coprosma heterophylla and C. polymorpha give a good indication of its variable leaf shapes and sizes, often found on the same plant. Now considered one species,  Coprosma rhamnoides (twiggy Coprosma, mingimingi, red currant Coprosma) is a small shrub whose branches arch over creating a pale brownish, rounded hummock, more pronounced in open environments. This dense growth form and fuzzy covering on its new branches, along with fruits tucked safely away inside the twiggy network have allowed it to endure in steep exposed pasture where few other species survive. This makes it an ideal early restoration species for converting harsh pasture sites back to bush cover.

I'm completely captivated by the small jewel-like, ruby fruits of this shrub (which sometimes are almost black) despite being the most painstaking of all to collect ! The leaves often have a pale blotch at the base which can help to identify them.

Calystegia soldanella (shore bindweed, shore Convolvulus, rauparaha) is a small creeping convolvulus common all over New Zealand and off shore islands in sandy coastal areas but also a few inland environments such as lake edges. We have four native species of Calystegia all of which are found elsewhere with C. soldanella being the most globally widespread.

Calystegia means ‘covered cup’ referring to the bracts (modified leaves often associated with reproductive structures like flowers) covering the calyx (collective name for the flower sepals), both of which wrap around the ovary containing the large brown shiny seeds. These large tan pods are produced almost year round. Like all rhizomatous plants it spreads by creeping underground stems (another easy way to propagate it) that play a role in sand dune stability. It also makes a great alternative to grass lawn in beach front properties.

Bush laywer (Rubus cissoides, tataramoa), is one of five endemic species of Rubus found here and our only native members of the huge global Rosaceae family containing many fruiting species like plums, peaches, quinces and strawberries. Rubus contains blackberries, raspberries etc. though the tiny fruits of our native species are a far cry from their large, sweet and juicy cousins.

This plant is not often cultivated for obvious reasons. I can certainly attest to the laborious and painful process of separating tangled plants left to grow into each other but it’s a good climber for restoration plantings in the early stages as it doesn’t become a huge, smothering, woody vine like some other climbers. Apart from the thorny issue of its management in the nursery it’s easy to propagate and will happily sit in a seed tray for pricking out later which is great for plants you only want a few of at a time.

Pittosporum tenuifolium (Kohukohu, kohuhu, black matipo) belongs to a family of about 200 - 240 species of Pittosporaceae spread around temperate and tropical parts of the Pacific. New Zealand Pittosporum are an important genus of 22 endemic species over half of which have small, vulnerable populations. Pittosporum meaning "pitch (tar) seed" refers to the incredibly sticky coating that gums the seeds together in the seed pod and is an effective deterrent to seed predators, aside from birds that is who seem to relish them, as well as disperse them when they stick to their feathers. One of the best tricks I've learnt from a seasoned propagator is to use flour to separate the seeds for sowing.

Kohuhu flowers can easily be missed because they are so dark in colour but they have an utterly divine scent, especially in the evening air. The popularity of this species in the home garden has resulted in many cultivars and hybrids making it more than a little tricky to identify a 'wild' specimen as a good seed source. The two common species in Wellington are P. tenuifolium and P. eugenioides and unfortunately P. crassifolium (karo), an upper North Island species superficially resembling pohutukawa that has become a serious weed in the Wellington area.

Extremely common around Wellington, tauhinu (Ozothamnus leptophyllus) is a dominant member of our 'grey scrub' community. The distinctly different forms of this variable species resulted in a previous count of five species and several varieties, all of which have now been subsumed into the one species, though these may again be split based on DNA evidence.

Tauhinu behaves a bit like gorse, quickly colonizing open farmland, growing to about two meters and then if the land is left, being overtopped by larger coastal broadleaved species. Part of its success must be attributed to a very long fruiting season, this species will drop seed until about July. Though part of the Asteraceae family known for sparse and variable germination, tauhinu is a reliable crop (if sown as thickly as the other daisies),  but will continue to send up seedlings for quite some time after the initial flush.

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Named for the position of the seed sitting atop the fruit rather than being enclosed in it, the Podocarps are our emergent giants of the forest. All fruit in autumn with the exception of rimu that may fruit at the end of summer but does so only about once a decade.

Miro, matai, totara, kahikatea, rimu and all our other conifers (cone bearing plants) belonging to the Podocarpaceae family, are endemic to New Zealand (found nowhere else). They are all very long lived, some with life spans up to 1000 years or more and descend from ancient lineages that have persisted since their peak diversity when New Zealand was part of a single land mass, Gondwana. Totara, rimu and kahikatea all have ancestors that were already present in the very earliest stages of New Zealand having finally drifted away from the rest of the supercontinent 60 million years ago.

Totara (Podocarpus totara), along with kauri, is possibly our longest lived tree living to over 1000 years. Totara is one the first of the large podocarps to start dropping seed. They are small, green and rather inconspicuous once they have lost their brightly coloured receptacle that serves as an attractant to its avian dispersers (they are deliciously sweet!). The absence of a woody seed coat means this is the quickest of the podocarps to germinate though the post germination growth rate is much slower than most of the others.

Rot resistant totara was the wood of choice for constructing large canoes, carvings, and for building. The thick sturdy bark that comes off in large strips also had multiple names and uses.

Matai (black pine, Prumnopitys taxifolia), is closely related to miro and has a similar bark pattern but with lighter, brighter reddish 'hammer marks' (patches where the bark has recently flaked off). Matai also has a distinctive divaricating juvenile form with small, sparse leaves and a brownish colour that make it look somewhat dead. Divaricating shrubs and juvenile forms have been proposed as an adaptation to moa browsing, the effort needed to gain sustenance from the plant greatly outweighing the nutrient gain and therefore, not really worth the trouble. It's been a hotly debated topic but I think compelling evidence comes from comparative studies of related plants on the Chatham Islands that never had moa. Those plants have larger leaves and more relaxed branching angles.

The fine golden finish and hardwearing properties of matai wood led to massive losses to milling, peaking in the 1950's. Along with clearance of lowland forest for farming, the extent of matai dominated forests have been reduced to small pockets on the eastern South Island. Matai fruit are an important food source for birds and it's an easy way to locate trees at this time of year, just listen for the almighty kerfuffle! 

above left: Wahlenbergia violacea (Violet Harebell)                         above right : Koromiko (Veronica stricta var. stricta)
below left: Earina autumnalis (Easter orchid, raupeka)                   below right: Euphrasia cuneata (North Island eyebright)

Mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus, hinahina, whitey wood), so named for its flowering and fruiting directly from the branches (ramilflory), is an abundant small tree found throughout the country and is the largest of 11 native species. This is a primary coloniser and most likely to be the bright, light green you see emerging above the gorse and scrub in newly regenerating land. It can however reach a height of up to 15 meters and support significant epiphyte communities. The dark purple berries are loved by birds and geckos and the dye from them was sometimes used in traditional Maori tattoos.

The soft wood makes it a favoured species for  burrowing insects like our North Island endemic pururi moth (Aenetus virescens) lavae. Mahoe also has its very own mahoe moth, Feredaria graminosa which can sometimes seriously defoliate the trees.

Mahoe seed can be put in the fridge for cool moist stratification (CMS) for 2 - 4 months if sowing immediately is not possible but it does seem to slow down the germination.

Melicope is a genus of about 230 shrub and tree species but only two are found here. M. simplex (poataniwha) is widespread throughout the country and more common around Wellington than M. ternata (April post). It’s not quite so easy to spot as it assumes its place amongst a sizable suite of "small leaved shrubs" but when in fruit, there is no mistaking it as the pods and seeds are an identical miniature version of M. ternata. Another distinguishing feature is the flattened leaf stalk attached by a joint to the leaf.

Like M. ternata, this species takes a while to germinate though I admit I haven’t tried different pre treatments to see if this time can be shortened. Given the seed type, hot water treatment would be worth a try.

Common broom (Carmichaelia australis), as its name suggests, is the most common native member of this genus found all over the country in almost every habitat. It’s one of 23 endemic species, the majority occurring in the eastern South Island, and it’s the only native broom you're likely to see around central Wellington. After a revision of the group about 20 years ago, several separate genera were subsumed into Carmichaelia and 12 species into C. australis highlighting its incredible variability.

The most interesting feature of this group is their lack of leaves. Modified stems known as cladodes or phylloclades take on the photosynthetic function usually performed by leaves. Celery pines (Phyllocladus) are another group whose leaves are modified stems. The seed pods remain on the plant as the sides of the pods fall away leaving the bright orange seeds dangling within the outline. Like all legumes, Carmichaelia has hard, long lasting seeds that germinate far more readily after a soak in hot water. See December post for flowering.

Carex is a huge genus of up to 2000 species, over 100 of which are native to New Zealand though several exotic species are just as at home here. Many are useful in restoration of wetlands; C. geminata, C. lessoniana, C. secta, C. virgata; forest understory and scrub; C. flagellifera, C. dissita, C. uncinata, C. banksiana; and coast, C. pumila (Jan post).

Carex secta (purei, pukio) is found in wetlands throughout the country and once mature, develops a trunk of old rhizomes, roots and flower stem bases that can attain a height of up to a meter ! The seed head is loosely branched (hence the species name meaning 'much divided') and drooping, and seeds fall very easily from the stem when ripe. Like many grasses and sedges this is a very fast grower and though it is most at home in wet environments it can tolerate the dry surprisingly well.

Though slightly slower growing, Carex virgata (swamp sedge, pukio, toitoi, toetoe) is very similar to C. secta and they can be difficult to tell apart when not in flower.  It inhabits similar situations and can also form a trunk though it never reaches the height of C. secta. Once in flower C. virgata is easy to spot by its rigid, upright stalks with flowers/seeds spiralling around the stem. When I first learnt this plant I would think "virgata in a vortex" to remember how to ID it.

Coprosma propinqua var. propinqua (mingimingi) is a very common endemic shrub widespread throughout New Zealand in a wide range of habitats. In Wellington it is common all around the coast and on exposed cliffs and hills where it is often wind-sculpted into dense low mounding forms virtually impenetrable to browsing herbivores. In more sheltered habitats though it can grow to a 6 mtr tree. The leaves vary in shape and fruit colour can range from translucent with faint blue speckles to blue or pale yellow.

When growing in association with other Coprosma species it hybridisies readily resulting in a medium leaved shrub. Unlike many hybrid offspring that are sterile, C. lucida x C. propinqua var propinqua (referred to as Coprosma x cunninghamii) can be extremely fertile producing further hybrid forms. Mingimingi (confusingly also the Maori name for Leucopogon, Leptecophylla and Muehlenbeckia astonii) is also one of the few hosts favoured by the native mistletoe, Ileostylus micranthus.

below: Veronica (Hebe) parviflora, the largest of the mainland Veronica species reaching up to 7.5 mtrs !

Anthosachne solandri (formerly Elymus, native wheatgrass, blue wheatgrass) belongs to one of the largest plant families in New Zealand, Poaceae, the grasses. There are over 400 grass species here, only half of which are native. Blue wheatgrass is one of six New Zealand endemics in its genus, most of which are outcompeted by introduced grasses and are now at risk in the wild. A. solandri, though slightly more scarce in the upper North, grows all over the country from sea level to about 1500 meters colonising rocky cliffs, river beds and screes as well as tussock lands. Its leaves are variously flat, rolled or folded giving it a slightly limp and wilted look.

Blue wheatgrass is named for its often intensely blue chalky appearance. This chalky coating is epicuticular wax, crystaline projections from the leaf surface that plants make from a range of organic compounds. Their main purpose is water repellency and moisture retention, but they can also confer UV light reflection, self-cleaning and anti-climb properties to the plant surface.

This plant does not tolerate wet or humid climates preferring airy, sunny conditions.

Carex pumila (sand sedge) is a delightful little coastal plant whose wiry rhizomes creep along under the sand, and for that reason it’s a valuable sand binder in dune ecosystems. Set against the stiff, blue-green curving leaves, are large tear drop shaped seeds coloured various shades of greenish yellow, gold, orange and brown, turning darker brown when ripe and falling away from the stem at a touch.

 Like one of its fiercest competitors, exotic marram grass, sand sedge is able to exploit its rhizomatous nature and extend its range without the need for seed. Some populations around our coast apparently don’t seed at all while others are reliably prolific. This lack of reliance on seed does seem to be reflected in low seed viability and uneven germination rates.

Though Carex pumila's success is reflected in its widespread global distribution, Wellington has very few dune systems left, most lost to development, so it’s not surprising we don't see more of this little ('pumila') gem.

Astelia fragrans (bush flax, bush lily, kakaha), is one of about 25 Astelia species found around the Pacific, the genus being centered in New Zealand with 15 endemic species. They inhabit almost all environments, from coast to forest to alpine and display a diverse range of forms from huge flax-like ones to tiny, highly reduced, mat forming species. Kakaha is one of our largest and most common, found throughout the country.

Astelia are unisexual which is why you might notice plants that never fruit. On female plants, the fragrant green-yellow flowers hidden right in the centre of the plant, swell to unmissable bright orange fruits loved by birds. These plants store water in the bases of their leaves making them extremely drought tolerant and they’ll collapse suddenly if over watered or faced with high humidity. Needless to say, keep them on the dry side!

They are slow growers taking their time to establish good roots due to the dual nature of their water storage strategy, so they develop big tops long before big roots. Allow two years from sowing to get a good sized chunky plant.

There's no more iconic sight than flaxes harakeke (Phormium tenax) and wharariki (Phormium cookianum subsp. hookeri, mountain flax) with tui drawn from miles around for the nectar. Phormium cookianum is usually ready to collect earlier than P. tenax when the seed pods begin to twist and dry but have not yet split. They will split fully after collection spilling out the many seeds which need no other processing.

Flax is well known for its high quality fibre and after a long history of manual production by Maori, European settlement saw an explosion in mechanised flax mills (using predominantly P. tenax) from about the 1860's. The industry boomed in the late 1800's accounting for about 5% of NZ's  main exports. In the early 1900's yellow leaf disease devastated flax populations and after the global depression hit, the industry was crippled by the 1930's . At present yellow leaf disease is sweeping through like a slow fire wiping out huge portions of the population. This bacterial disease is spread easily by leaf hoppers and completely kills the plant so if you have it in your garden the plants need to be removed. Once the disease has run its course, populations will slowly recover.  

New Zealand has about 40 native and 10 naturalised species of Poa. Silver tussock (Poa cita) is one of the shorter tussocks common at lower altitudes which, along with Festuca, once made up almost 45% of our native grasslands much of which was a result of burning beech and other forest types by Maori. European settlers quickly discovered the value of these grasslands for grazing, burning off the tussocks and sowing introduced grasses. This practice quickly led to the spread of aggressive introduced weeds and combined with increasing grazing pressure, led early botanists to express their concerns about the threat to lowland tussock diversity.

Silver tussock is a feature of Wellington's coastal and lower montane environments, is super quick and easy to grow and will be happy in spots where nothing else will. As with most grasses check that the seed is a nice light brown colour rather than green before collecting.

Coprosma grandifolia (kanono, manono, large-leaved coprosma, raurekau) like all the large-fruited Coprosma is a much loved bird food and for that reason collections yield better results by covering a few branches with mesh bags to protect the fruit from the birds. The fruits of all Coprosma species are edible and are very soft and juicy making it easy to remove the seeds. You can sow the seeds fresh but I usually opt for a period of cold stratification to kick off a good even germination that makes pricking out large numbers much easier.

Coprosma are found throughout the Pacific but their highest diversity is in New Zealand where they occur in a wide range of forms and environments from sand dunes to mountains to forest understory like C. grandifolia. The leaf domatia visible in this picture in the axils of the leaf veins are a feature of Coprosma species. Domatia (derived from the Latin word for home) occur on many plants hosting a range of inhabitants that are mostly, but not always, mutualistic. In Coprosma they house tiny fungivorous and detritivorous mites that studies have suggested might infer a fitness advantage for these species by reducing fungal pathogens on the leaves.

Top left: A. fulvida (toetoe), inside of leaf base glabrous (no hairs) when bent back from where it meets the stem. Right: A. toetoe, hairy on the inside of the leaf base. You can see the leaf colour difference quite well in these pics too, A. toetoe more yellow-green than A. fulvida.

A. fulvida is one of two species common around Wellington and is the first of the two to flower which is a good way to tell them apart (at least in November and early December). Its generally more delicate looking with slender stems and longer arched flower heads compared to the sturdier more upright flower heads of A. toetoe but when in doubt the pics above show some obvious differences. Toetoe is ready to collect when the seed heads have changed from sleek to fluffy, the stems have turned golden instead of green and the seeds are easily falling out when the head is shaken.

Whatever you do don't confuse either of them with the exotic pampas grass, Cortaderia jubata (pink tinge) and C. selloana which flower roughly in between A. fulvida and A. toetoe and have the give away spiralled dead leaf bases that resemble wood shavings around the base of the clump.

Carex flagellifera (Glen Murray tussock, Trip Me Up) is a common sedge found throughout the country and is similar in appearance to other thin-leaved sedges. Preferring light shade it inhabits coastal to montane areas in open bush and scrub. It's very quick and easy to grow so is a great filler and weed suppressor for more open sites. The seed stalks can reach an incredible 2 - 3 meters in length (!), trailing out along the ground and absolutely true to the name 'tirp-me-up'.
 

Tetragonia implexicoma (native spinach) is easily distinguished from the other, more palatable but now at risk Tetragonia tetragonoides (kokihi, New Zealand spinach, tutae-ikamoana), by the bright pink fleshy berries. This plant is common around the coast but will grow in any suitable sunny spot. Though it looks fairly scraggly in the wild, when given slightly more favourable conditions it can be a really attractive ground cover for a hot dry spot.

See November post for an image of Clematis forsteri (Forster's clematis) in flower, its smaller yellowish flowers are easily distinguished from C. paniculata (white clematis, puawananga), which has large very white flowers and stands out as bright white patches in trees in early spring. C. afoliata you're not likely to see unless you visit the one rather out of the way spot where it grows. 

These all have a surprisingly long seed maturation period, they slowly turn fluffy then sit on the seed head for what seems like forever. Don't be tempted to pick them too early, seeds disperse when they're ready and this one is dispersed by wind so they should be dry and brown like the ones above and come away very easily when grasped.

Kohekohe (Dysoxylum spectabile, New Zealand mahogany) is one of our most enchanting trees. As winter sets in it produces huge sprays of creamy blooms directly from the trunk (cauliflory), alongside huge drooping clusters of fruit, set from last winters flowers.

Kohekohe is the only representative of its family found here. Though Dysoxylum its a fairly large genus of about 75 species, the rest are found in warmer regions of Asia and the Pacific. The seemingly miraculous feature of flowering and fruiting directly from mature wood is unusual in Aotearoa but not so in tropical regions where lush, dense vegetation might inhibit the ability of pollinators and dispersers to locate them. Producing flowers from the trunk means they're much easier to see and access, so will be visited more.

Kohekohe is not found very far inland but is also not tolerant of the full brunt of coastal salt and wind so is happy in that next layer in behind hardier species and is extremely shade tolerant. Dysoxylum = foul-smelling wood and spectabile = showy, smelly but showy .... could be worse !

Raukaua anomala was previously classified as Pseudopanax and a close look at the fruit reveals their similarity.  There's lots of things about this little shrub that really appeal to me. It grows in some very exposed and inhospitable spots, so has that hunker-down tenacity that I love. Its interlacing zig-zag structure is so striking due to the thickness of its twigs, and deep inside it produces small, purple-speckled fruit the texture of marshmallows. It's not at all difficult to propagate if you're keen enough to embark on the surgical procedure of extracting the fruit from the plant!

Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani (kuawa) is a large sedge (with a large name !) disguised as a large rush, similar in appearance to Juncus pallidus discussed next. Its a lake and stream edge plant that inhabits standing water and is found throughout the world.

The seed heads look like enlarged Ficinia nodosa (wiwi) seed heads but with stalks. If you're trying to distinguish it from a rush, peel back the outer stem to reveal the pith, it has cross walls with the appearance of brick work. 

The small shiny nuts fall easily from the seed head when rubbed, but because they ripen slowly and stay in the seed head for so long collection could shorten essential ripening time, so I suspect germination might improve with a period in dry storage before sowing.  The erratic germination I've experienced with this species is why the easiest means of propagation is by division of the spreading clumps. It's as simple as shaking off the soil and snipping away a shoot (or several) from the rooted rhizome.

Flowers of a male five finger (Pseudopanax arboreus) starting to open.

Another plug for kohekohe, whatever you do don't miss the opportunity to see it in full flower and fruit. The Botanic Gardens is a great place to see them easily in all their glory. Its well worth braving the cold !

At a quiet time for seed collection the stunning dark purple, almost black fruit of Pseudopanax arboreus (whauwhaupaku, five finger) is in various stages of ripeness. The dark colour of the fruit looks so promising from a distance but more often than not, on closer inspection, is still just slowly creeping towards ripeness.  I use my thumbnail to test a sample of fruit, if it hits the hard seed without passing right through, there's likely some good ripe seed.
The fruit can be quite tough so I usually rough it up a bit with some hard sand and leave it moist for a while to ferment and soften up, then scrub the fruit off and keep the seeds that sink, its usually a good sign of ripe/mature seed.

The seedlings are awfully prone to damping off so make sure they don't stay too wet and let them get to a decent size before pricking out so they can harden up a bit.

Carpodetus serratus, (putaputaweta or marble leaf) is another of the few species in fruit right now and for that very reason, good luck beating the birds to them! The fruits ripen  one at a time (almost literally), I've bagged a few branches with bags made of frost cloth to ensure I get the few fruits needed for the following years reveg season, they turn black when ripe and can be rolled in your fingers to release the many seeds that come away without any fruit residue due to their shiny seed coat.

Putaputaweta is endemic to New Zealand and is the only species in the Rousseaceae family in our native flora. It gets its Maori name from the weta jumping out of their hiding places in the  branches (burrows made by pururi caterpillars) when tossed on a fire. The native puriri moth (Aenetus virescens) caterlillars that favour a number of native and exotic trees, burrow into the trunk and feed on the cambium (that's after they have spent their very first life stage feeding on fungi). They cover the burrow entrance with a silky web fashioned to look like a knot in the wood!

The galls that Carpodetus are often covered in (pictured at top) are host to a whole succession of occupants. The lavae of the midge that causes the gall is parasitized by four different species of Hymenoptera (the group that includes, bees, ants and wasps), then later the dying gall tissue is used as a breeding site by weevils.

One of our most widespread and best known natives manuka (Leptospermum scoparium var. scoparium), a hugely popular garden plant with a countless variety of cultivars, can be collected almost all year round so its a good one to target in the 'off' season. Each capsule contains many hundreds of tiny hair-like seeds so even taking a small stem is plenty. You can see when the capsules are ready to burst by the thin glint of copper at the joins between the locules shown above. Put them in a paper bag to continue opening and fully dry out then sow them as soon as possible, they don't have a long shelf life.

If you're wondering is it manuka or is it kanuka (Kunzea robusta), the obvious differences are; manuka has large single flowers and hard rounded capsules with bulging lids, kanuka has clusters of much smaller flowers and soft capsules with sunken lids; manuka has pricklier leaves and is a smaller growing tree so the great big ones you see will be kanuka.

Rangiora (Brachyglottis repanda, bushman's toilet paper, bushman's friend) is one of over 30 species of native Brachyglottis, almost half of which are uncommon or at some level of risk in the wild. Its large fluffy flower heads are loved by bees and butterflies and though its a great coloniser it can be a bit tricky to propagate from seed. Like most Asteraceae the viability of its seeds is pretty low but it makes a massive amount of them so when they're all fluffy and easily falling off, stuff the flower head inside a paper bag and shake them off. Sow really thickly to get a good strike.

If you want lots at once the cold moist stratification will even out the germination but sometimes its quite handy to have seedlings coming up over a period of time so you don't have more than you can deal with. Sown fresh these seeds will keep germinating in your seed tray for a year or more so you can have several years worth from the one tray.

This little bidibidi earned a special mention for its opportunistic use of its neighbouring shrub for height, light and warmth. They are galloping across a scrubby pasture near you and will grab the attention of your sock later in the season !